tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-60585507847427277952024-03-13T21:26:24.179-07:00Morphology, Syntax and SemanticsMorphology, Syntax and Semanticsgunsirithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12044286050347672532noreply@blogger.comBlogger6125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6058550784742727795.post-5477250142815376192010-12-09T01:47:00.000-08:002010-12-09T01:47:08.394-08:00Tenses And Aspect<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The following are notes which answer the three most important learning outcomes as contained in the module.</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Please type in your qu<span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 13px;">estions or queries in the comment section at the end of this post.</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 13px;"><br />
</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 13px;"><iframe align="left" frameborder="0" marginheight="0" marginwidth="0" scrolling="no" src="http://rcm.amazon.com/e/cm?t=gundushumblo-20&o=1&p=8&l=bpl&asins=B001CSEOKQ&fc1=000000&IS2=1&lt1=_blank&m=amazon&lc1=0000FF&bc1=000000&bg1=FFFFFF&f=ifr" style="align: left; height: 245px; padding-right: 10px; padding-top: 5px; width: 131px;"></iframe></span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype', serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b><br />
</b></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>1. Describe the paradigm of the tense aspect system in the English Language</b></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b><u>Tense</u></b>: Tense is defined as grammatically expressed assignment to situations of "location in time" and can be illustrated, for example by the use of inflections [<b>-s</b>], the speaker instructs the listener to identify a situation that applies <b>at the momen</b>t the utterance is made, and in using the inflection [<b>-ed</b>] in the second to identify a situation that applies <b>before</b> this moment (Past action).</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b><u>Aspect</u></b>: Aspect is defined as grammatically expressed assignment of "situational focus" and can be illustrated for examples by using the auxiliary <i style="font-weight: bold;">was </i>and the inflectional ending [<b>-ing</b>].</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In English, tense and aspect are tightly interwoven, we therefore, treat them together and operate with a fused tense and aspect system. It focuses on such contrasts as durative (duration) or extending in time or non-durative, whether the event is seen in its initial stage or its final stage, whether it is completed or uncompleted. In other words - beginning stage, in progress, uncompleted and completed.</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman do this in Table 8.1 by listing the two tenses, present and past, along the vertical axis. They include the future on this list of tenses as well, for although there is no verb inflection for future time, any description of the English tense- aspect system needs to account for what form-meaning combinations <em><b>do</b> </em>exist that relate to future time. The four aspects -simple (sometimes called zero aspect), perfect, progressive, and their combination, perfect progressive- are arrayed along the horizontal axis. The tense-aspect is illustrated by the combinations of the irregular verb <em>write </em>and the regular verb <em>walk. </em></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><strong>Table 8.1</strong></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;">: Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999), the 12 combinations of tense and aspect</span></div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><br />
</span><br />
<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; width: 550px;"><tbody>
<tr><td align="center" bgcolor="#fff5d7" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="57"><div align="center"><br />
</div></td><td align="center" bgcolor="#fff5d7" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="88"><div align="center"><strong>Simple</strong></div></td><td align="center" bgcolor="#fff5d7" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="108"><div align="center"><strong>Perfect have + -en</strong></div></td><td align="center" bgcolor="#fff5d7" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="110"><div align="center"><strong>Progressive be + -ing</strong></div></td><td align="center" bgcolor="#fff5d7" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="111"><div align="center"><strong>Perfect Progressive have + -en be + -ing</strong></div></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" bgcolor="#eaeaea" rowspan="2" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><div align="center"><br />
Present</div></td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">write/writes</td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">has/have written</td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">am/is/are writing</td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><div align="left">has/have been writing</div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">walk/walks</td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">has/have walked</td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">am/is/are walking</td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><div align="left">has/have been walking</div></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" bgcolor="#eaeaea" rowspan="2" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><div align="center"><br />
Past</div><div align="center"><br />
</div></td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">wrote</td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">had written</td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">was/were writing</td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">had been writing</td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">walked</td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">had walked</td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">was/were walking</td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">had been walking</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" bgcolor="#eaeaea" rowspan="2" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><div align="center"><br />
Future</div><div align="center"><br />
</div></td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">will write</td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">will have written</td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">will have writing</td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><div align="left">will have been writing</div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">will walk</td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">will have walked</td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">will have walking</td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><div align="left">will have been walking</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<br />
<b><u>Tense</u>: Present, Past, Future</b><br />
<b><u>Aspect</u>: Simple, Perfect, Progressive and Perfect progressive.</b><br />
<b><br />
</b><br />
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Example: </span></b><br />
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></b><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">1. Joe <i><u>walks</u></i> to school everyday. [Tense: Present | Aspect: Simple]</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">2. Gunsirit <i><u>will have written</u></i> the letter by the time I arrived home tomorrow. [Tense: Future | Aspect: Perfect have + en]</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">For the future time in our matrix, we use the modal <em>will, </em>since there is no future tense that appears as a marking on the verb in English. However, English uses a number of ways in addition to the use of <em>will </em>to indicate that an action or event is to take place in the future. The future adheres to the same patterns as the present and past in terms of its combination of aspect markers: <em>will </em>with the base form for the simple future, <em>will </em>+ <em>have </em>+ <strong><em>-</em></strong>{<strong><em>-en</em></strong>} for the future perfect, <em>will </em>with <em>be </em>+ {<strong><em>-ing</em></strong>} for the future progressive, and <em>will </em>+ <em>have </em>+ {<strong><em>-en</em></strong>} + <em>be </em>+ {<strong><em>-ing</em></strong>} for the future perfect progressive.</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>2. Describe the formal characteristics of the tense and aspect system</b></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Bache (1997) provides 16 tense-aspect forms in English, as applied to the verb <strong>happen</strong> such as the following. It is important to remember that this list contains instructions reflecting the <em>basic </em>semantics of the tense-aspect system. As we have seen, specific constructions may express derived meanings and/or have special uses, depending on <strong>actional</strong> and <strong>aspectual</strong> properties.<br />
</span><br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="909"><ol start="1"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The present</li>
[Present. [ situation]] Tag a situation of ‘happening’ on to world-<strong>now</strong>.</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" width="154"><div align="left"><em>happens<br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><ol start="2"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The past <br />
[Past [situation]]<br />
Tag a situation of ‘happening’ on to world-<strong>before-now</strong>.</li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div align="left"><em>happened<br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><ol start="3"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The present future<br />
[Present [future [situation]]]<br />
Tag on to world-<strong>now</strong> and then <strong>look ahead to a situation of ‘happening’</strong>.</li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div align="left"><em>will happen<br />
<br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><ol start="4"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The past future <br />
[Past [future [situation]]]<br />
Tag on to world-<strong>before-now</strong> and then <strong>look ahead to a situation of ‘happening’</strong></li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div align="left"><em>would happen<br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><ol start="5"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The present perfect <br />
[Present [anterior [situation]]]<br />
Tag on to world-<strong>now</strong> and then <strong>look back</strong> at a situation of ‘happening’.</li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div align="left"><em>has happened<br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><ol start="6"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The past perfect <br />
[Past [anterior [situation]]] Tag on to world-<strong>before-now</strong> and then <strong>look back </strong>at a situation of ‘happening’.</li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div align="left"><em>had happened<br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><ol start="7"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The present future perfect <br />
[Present [future [anterior [situation]]]]<br />
Tag on to world-<strong>now</strong>, then <strong>look ahead to a future </strong>time and<strong> finally look back </strong>at a situation of ‘happening’<strong>.</strong></li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div align="left"><em>will have happened<br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><ol start="8"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The past future perfect <br />
[Past [future [anterior [situation]]]]<br />
Tag on to world-<strong>before-now</strong>, then <strong>look ahead to a posterior time</strong> and <strong>finally look </strong><strong>ack </strong>at a situation of ‘happening’.</li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div align="left"><em>would have happened<br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><ol start="9"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The present progressive <em> </em><br />
[Present [progressing [situation]]]<br />
Tag on to world-<strong>now,</strong> and then <strong>look here at a simultaneously progressing</strong> situation f ‘happening’</li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div align="left"><em>is <em>happening</em><br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><ol start="10"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The past progressive <br />
[Past [progressing [situation]]]<br />
Tag on to world-<strong>before-now</strong> and then <strong>look here</strong> at <strong>a simultaneously progressing s</strong>ituation of ‘happening’.<strong></strong></li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div align="left"><em>was happening<br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><ol start="11"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The present future progressive <br />
[Present [future [progressing [situation]]]]<br />
Tag on to world-<strong>now</strong>, then <strong>look ahead to a future time </strong>and <strong>finally look here at a</strong><strong>simultaneously progressing </strong>situation of ‘happening’.</li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div align="left"><em>will be happening<br />
<br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><ol start="12"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The past future progressive <br />
[Past [future [progressing [situation]]]]<br />
Tag on to world-<strong>before-now</strong>, then <strong>look ahead to a posterior </strong>time and finally lookhere at a <strong>simultaneously progressing </strong>situation of ‘happening’.</li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div align="left"><em>would be happening<br />
<br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><ol start="13"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The present perfect progressive <br />
[Present [anterior [progressing [situation]]]]<br />
Tag on to world-<strong>now</strong>, then <strong>look back </strong>at an anterior time and <em>finally look at a situation</em> <em>f ‘happening’ progressing simultaneously </em>with the anterior-present period (i.e. towards resent time).</li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div align="left"><em>has been happening<br />
<br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><ol start="14"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The past perfect progressive <br />
[Past [anterior [progressing [situation]]]]<br />
Tag on to world-<strong>before-now</strong>, then <strong>look back </strong>at an anterior time and <strong>finally look at a situation of ‘happening’ progressing </strong>simultaneously with the anterior-past period<strong> </strong>i.e. towards the past time).<strong></strong></li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div align="left"><em>had been happening<br />
<br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><ol start="15"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The present future perfect progressive <br />
[Present [future [anterior [progressing [ situation]]]]]<br />
Tag on to world-<strong>now</strong>, then <strong>look ahead to a future </strong>time, then <strong>look back </strong>at an anteriorime and <strong>finally look at a situation of ‘happening’ progressing </strong>simultaneously ith the future-anterior period (i.e. towards the future time).</li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div align="left"><em>will have been happening<br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><ol start="16"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">The past future perfect progressive <br />
[Past [future [anterior [progressing [situation]]]]]<br />
Tag on to world-<strong>before-now</strong>, then <strong>look ahead to a posterior time</strong>, then <strong>look back </strong>at an anterior time and <strong>finally look at a situation of ‘happening’ progressing </strong>imultaneously with the posterior-anterior period (i.e. towards the posterior time).</li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><div align="left"><em>would have been happening<br />
<br />
</em></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">3. Explain the meanings expressed by tense and aspects system such as present, past future, non-future, perfect, non-perfect, progressive and non-progressive.</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span><br />
<br />
<h1 style="color: #0054a6;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: small;">Basic meanings of the four forms</span></h1><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Most students know that “will” and “going to” are used to talk about future time in English. However, we also use the present progressive (“be” + {<strong><em>ing</em></strong>}) and the present simple tense. Here are the basic rules.</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<center style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><strong>Table 8.2</strong>: Basic Rules of the Four Forms<br />
<br />
<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1" style="width: 550px;"><tbody>
<tr><td align="center" bgcolor="#fff5d7" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="100"><div align="center"><strong>Form</strong></div></td><td align="center" bgcolor="#fff5d7" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="223"><div align="center"><strong>Meaning / Usage</strong></div></td><td align="center" bgcolor="#fff5d7" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="181"><div align="center"><strong>Example</strong></div></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><div align="center">"Will"</div></td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">to volunteer to do something deciding at the time of speaking to do something</td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">Ali: I need a pencil.<br />
Siti: I'll lend you mine.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><div align="center">"Going to"</div></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">to talk about something that is already decided</td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">Ali: Have you registered for tha class yet?<br />
Siti: Not yet. I'm going to register tomorrow.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><div align="center">Present Continuous</div></td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">to talk about something that is already arranged</td><td bgcolor="#eaeaea" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">Ali: Do you want to go the movies tonight?<br />
Siti: Sorry, I can't. I'm playing soccer.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top"><div align="center">Present simple</div></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">to talk about a schedule, timetable or program</td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top">Ali: What time does the next bus leave?<br />
Siti: It leaves at six</td></tr>
</tbody></table></center><center style="text-align: left;"><h1 style="color: #0054a6;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: small;">THE MEANING OF TENSE</span></h1><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Tense is defined as the linguistic </span><strong style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">expression of time relations realised by verb forms</strong><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. Time is independent of language and is common to all human beings. Most grammarians conceptualise it, as being divided into past time, present time and future time. Tense systems are language specific and vary from one language to another as you have seen in Malay and English. Tenses distinguish in the ways that reflect temporal (chronological) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">reference. In English, for instance, it would be erroneous to imagine that the Past Tense reflects exclusively to events in past time, that there is a Present Tense to refer exclusively to events in present time and a Future Tense (eg. modal will/would) to refer exclusively to events in future time. </span></center><center style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></center><center style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In the following examples, the forms often thought to correspond to past and future time reference, respectively, in fact, <b>refer to the moment of speakin</b>g, for example:</span></center><center style="text-align: left;"><br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="20"><br />
<ol start="18"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"></li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><br />
<ol start="1" type="a"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">I thought you <em>were </em>in the hall.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"><em>Will </em>you park there, please?</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">I <em>was wondering </em>whether you <em>needed </em>a drink.</li>
</ol></td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">On the contrary, the ‘Present Tense’ forms used in the following examples <b>do not</b> refer exclusively to the moment of speaking, for example: </span><br />
<br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="20"><br />
<ol start="19"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"></li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><br />
<ol start="1" type="a"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">These trees <em>look dead </em>in drought.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">We <em>leave </em>for Kuala Lumpur tonight.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">Temperatures <em>rise </em>to 100 degree F.</li>
</ol></td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span">I</span><span class="Apple-style-span">n addition to tense forms of verbs, other linguistic forms, particularly adverbs of time such as </span><em>now, then, tomorrow </em><span class="Apple-style-span">and Prepositional Phrases such as </span><em>in 2004 </em><span class="Apple-style-span">can make reference to time; English, in fact, relies extensively on such words to make the temporal reference clear.</span></span></center><center style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><br />
</span></span></center><center style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><h1 style="color: #0054a6; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">POINTS IN TIME AND POINTS OF REFERENCE</span></h1><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Tense is how we express events that occurs at points situated along the linear flow of time. Within the linear flow, a point of reference must be established, with respect to which past events precede and future events follow. The normal, universal and therefore unmarked point of reference is the moment of speaking. This is the ‘now’, which is implicitly understood in everyday interaction. It can be diagrammed as follows:</span><br />
<br />
<div align="center" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><strong>UTTERANCES</strong><br />
_______________________________________</div><div align="center" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;">past now future<br />
<br />
speech time<br />
<br />
the present moment</div><div style="text-align: center;"></div><h1 style="color: #0054a6; text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: small;">THE PRESENT AND PAST TENSES IN ENGLISH</span></h1><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In everyday use, ‘at present’ and ‘at the present time’ have a wider application than simply to the present moment of speech time. Thus, the example <em>Sun rises in the east </em>includes in its time reference the present moment but also past and future time. It can be diagrammed in the following way:</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div align="center" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><strong>UTTERANCES</strong><br />
_______________________________________</div><div align="center" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;">past now future<br />
<br />
Sun rises in the east<br />
<br />
------------------------------------present ----------------------------------</div><div align="center" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Present time in this sense can therefore mean (a) at all times, or (b) at no particular time. The grammatical tense used in examples above is the unmarked form, having no modification, consisting of the lexical verb alone with no grammatical meaning beyond that of ‘verb’. Thus, it can cover a wide range of temporal references. We can retain the traditional term <strong>Present or non-progressive Present </strong>for convenience, rather than the term <strong>Non-past</strong>preferred by some grammarians, it is with the recognition that as a tense it only rarely has a direct relation to speech time.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The <strong>Non-past </strong>as an alternative term to <strong>Present </strong>tense is based on the following reasoning: <strong>while the Present tense can refer to future time</strong> as in <em>We leave for Penang tomorrow. When do we arrive? </em>It cannot normally be used with a time expression which refers specifically to an event in the past: <em>*I listen to that story last week </em>instead of <em>He listened to that story last week. </em>The unmarked form therefore can be used to make specific reference to a future event but not normally to a past event.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The English Past tense is the morphologically and semantically marked form. Morphologically, the vast majority of verbs have a distinctive past form, and semantically in that the Past Tense refers to an action that is visualised as remote, either in time <em>(He listened to that story last week) </em>or as unreality <em>(I wish </em>we <em>were on the beach). </em>We have, consequently, in English an unmarked tense, which we shall call the Present and a marked tense which is the Past.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Tense is a category realised by inflection on the verb and English language, strictly speaking, has no Future Tense. Against this view it might be argued that, in spoken English at least, the enclitic form {<em>‘II</em>} corresponding to <em>shall </em>and <em>will </em>is very similar to an inflection Downing et al. (1992). More important, however, are the form-meaning relationships: first, <em>shall </em>and <em>will </em>belong to a set of modal auxiliaries and can express meanings other than reference to future time, such as willingness in <em>Will you sit here? </em>and request for instructions as in <em>Shall I wash you car? </em>Furthermore, <em>will </em>has its own past form <em>would; </em>and finally, future time can be referred to by a number of grammatical and lexical forms.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"></span><br />
<h1 style="color: #0054a6;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">MEANINGS EXPRESSED BY THE NON-PROGRESSIVE PRESENT</span></span></h1><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Sative verbs such as <em>be, seem, belong, </em>or dynamic, such as <em>kick, eat, write</em> verbs expressed the verb in the non-progressive Present tense differently compare to the dynamic verbs. In other words, the meaning of non-progressive depends on whether the verb is being used statically or dynamically, since many verbs lend themselves to both interpretations. <em>Stand </em>in <em>the hut stands on a hill, </em>for instance, expresses a state, whereas the phrasal verb <em>stand up </em>is used dynamically in <em>All the soldiers stood up.</em><br />
<br />
In general, dynamic but not static meanings occur after <em>do </em>in pseudo-cleft sentences:<br />
<br />
</span><br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="20"><br />
<ol start="19"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"></li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><br />
<ol start="1" type="a"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">What the children did was stand up.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">What the house does is stand on a hill.</li>
</ol></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"></span><br />
<h1 style="color: #0054a6;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">PRESENT AND TIMELESS STATES</span></span></h1><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Meanings of the Present static verb can express timeless statements, that is, statements which apply to all time, including speech time. These include scientific, mathematical and descriptive statements, as in the following examples:<br />
<br />
</span><br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="20"><br />
<ol start="20"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"></li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><br />
<ol start="1" type="a"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">Cat <em>is </em>a mammal.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">Gold <em>has </em>a relatively low melting point.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">Two and two <em>make </em>four.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">Silk <em>feels </em>smooth to the touch.</li>
</ol></td></tr>
</tbody></table><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;">HumanS usually engage in activities whose time span is not endless, e.g. </span><em style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;">know, seem, belong. </em><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;">They are nevertheless states, in which no change or limitation into the past or future is implied:</span><br />
<br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="20"><br />
<ol start="21"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"></li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><br />
<ol start="1" type="a"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">He knows Penang quite well.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">This land belongs to the Keretapi Malaysia.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">Those exercises look difficult.</li>
</ol></td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span">Here, too, the temporal reference includes speech time.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><br />
</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span"></span><br />
<h1 style="color: #0054a6;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: small;">REPEATED EVENTS IN THE PRESENT</span></span></h1><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">A series of events which cover an unspecified time can be expressed by dynamic verbs to show the Present. Speech time is not necessarily or even usually included; such statements are, however, valid at speech time: </span><br />
</span><br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="20"><br />
<ol start="22"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"></li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><br />
<ol start="1" type="a"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">He sleeps in the hall.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">Many families lose their homes in floods.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">They spend most of their time studying</li>
</ol></td></tr>
</tbody></table><span class="Apple-style-span"><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Adjuncts of time, frequency, place, destination, etc., often accompany statements in the Present which express repeated or recurrent events. Indeed, many such statements as <em>They spend most of their time </em>are incomplete without a circumstantial specification.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"></span></span><br />
<h1 style="color: #0054a6;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">INSTANTANEOUS EVENTS IN THE PRESENT</span></span></span></h1><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In certain situations the event coincides, or is presented as coinciding, with the moment of speaking, and without having any duration beyond speech time. The Present is used in such situations, which are classified as specific types:<br />
<br />
</span></span><br />
<ol start="1" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;" type="a"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><strong>Performatives:</strong><br />
<br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="100%"><br />
<ol start="23"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">I <em>warn </em>you that this knife is sharp.</li>
</ol></td></tr>
</tbody></table></span></span></li>
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"><strong>Exclamations with initial directional adverb:</strong><br />
<br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="100%"><br />
<ol start="24"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">Off they <em>fly!</em></li>
</ol></td></tr>
</tbody></table></li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"><strong>Commentaries:</strong><br />
<br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="100%"><br />
<ol start="25"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">Santokh <em>passes </em>and Mokhtar <em>heads </em>the ball into the net!</li>
</ol></td></tr>
</tbody></table></li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"><strong>Demonstrations:</strong><br />
<br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="100%"><br />
<ol start="26"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">I <em>place </em>the coffee in the cup, <em>stir </em>gently, and then <em>sip </em>slowly.</li>
</ol></td></tr>
</tbody></table></li>
</span></span></ol><div><h1 style="color: #0054a6;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">MEANINGS EXPRESSED BY THE NON-PROGRESSIVE PAST TENSE</span></span></span></h1><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The global meaning of the Past Tense in English is to demonstrate ‘remoteness’ or distancing from the moment of speaking, whether in time, towards the past, or with regard to potential or hypothetical events which have not yet occurred in the present or the future.</span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span></div><div><h1 style="color: #0054a6;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">Definite Events in the Past</span></span></span></h1><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Non-progressive Past Tense is used to refer to a past event or state, the Past in English contains two semantic features:</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span><br />
<ol start="1" type="a"><li style="margin-left: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">to visualise the event as having occurred at some specific time in the past.</span></span></li>
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">
<li style="margin-left: 0px;">to show the event was completed in the past, and a gap in time separates its completion from the present.</li>
</span></span></ol><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">These features are illustrated in the following examples:</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span><br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="20"><br />
<ol start="32"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"></li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><br />
<ol start="1" type="a"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">I bought some biscuits yesterday</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">Tun Perak was born in Pahang.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">He lived in Kuala Lumpur until 1890 and spent the rest of his life in exile.</li>
</ol></td></tr>
</tbody></table><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span">The criteria require a fairly rigid distinction in English between what can be expressed by the Past and what can be expressed by the Present Perfect. The meanings of specific occurrence, completed event and disconnectedness from present time are </span><em>not </em><span class="Apple-style-span">normally expressed by the Present Perfect; the above examples, for instance, are unacceptable with the verb in the Perfect:</span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span><br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="20"><br />
<ol start="33"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"></li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><br />
<ol start="1" type="a"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">*I have bought some biscuits yesterday.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">*He has been born in Pahang.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">*We have met four years ago.</li>
</ol></td></tr>
</tbody></table><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span">Adjuncts of specific past time such as </span><em>yesterday </em><span class="Apple-style-span">and </span><em>in </em><span class="Apple-style-span">2002 naturally combine well with the Past, but not with the Perfect, since their function is to signal the past moment in time explicitly.</span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span">We do not need to specify a past occurrence by means of an Adjunct, however, as long as we have a specific time in mind and can assume that the hearer understands this, from inference or from the situational context, the Past tense can be used alone, as in:</span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span><br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="20"><br />
<ol start="34"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"></li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><br />
<ol start="1" type="a"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">Did you see that object coming down?</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">You didn’t tell me you met Maria at the mall.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">Did Kamal remember to buy the books?</li>
</ol></td></tr>
</tbody></table><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span">The events referred to in these examples are situationally definite, the definiteness of the event being in many cases confirmed by the definiteness of the participants </span><em>(that object, my letters) </em><span class="Apple-style-span">or the circumstance </span><em>(at the mall). </em></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span">The definiteness of the event expressed by the Past does not require that the time in question be specified, only that it is mentioned. For this reason even unspecific adverbs such as </span><em>once, when </em><span class="Apple-style-span">and conjunctions such as </span><em>while</em><span class="Apple-style-span">and </span><em>as soon as </em><span class="Apple-style-span">can introduce Past tense verbs:</span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span><br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="20"><br />
<ol start="35"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"></li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;"><br />
<ol start="1" type="a"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">Latif knew a football from the KL club.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">When did you learn Swahili?</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">While we walked along, he told me about his assignment.</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">As soon as they saw us, they came to greet us.</li>
</ol></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div><div style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span></div><div><h1 style="color: #0054a6;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">THE MEANING OF THE PROGRESSIVE</span></span></span></h1><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">English has a progressive aspect realised by verbal periphrasis: some form of <em>be </em>and the {<em>–ing</em>} participle. It combines with both Present and Past Tenses, and also with the Perfect, with modals, with lexico-modals and with the passive:</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span><br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px;"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="4%"><ol start="55"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;"> </li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" width="23%"><ol start="1" type="a"><li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">He is <em>reading</em></li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">He was reading</li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">He <em>has been reading</em></li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">He <em>will </em>be <em>reading</em></li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">He is <em>bound to </em>be <em>reading</em></li>
<li style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; margin-left: 0px;">It <em>is being read</em></li>
</ol></td><td bgcolor="#ffffcc" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Verdana; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify;" valign="top" width="73%">Present + Progressive<br />
Past + Progressive<br />
Perfect + Progressive<br />
Modal + Progressive<br />
Lexico-modal + Progressive<br />
Present + Progressive + Passive</td></tr>
</tbody></table><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span">The fundamental purpose of the English Progressive aspect is to indicate a dynamic action in the process of happening. Attention is focused on the middle of the process, which is seen as essentially dynamic.</span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span">Unlike some languages which also have a Progressive, English makes a grammatical contrast with the non-progressive, as in </span><em>What are you doing? </em><span class="Apple-style-span">as opposed to *</span><em>What do you do? </em><span class="Apple-style-span">That is to say, there is an obligatory choice between viewing the action as in the process of happening </span><em>(What are you doing?) </em><span class="Apple-style-span">and not viewing it in this way.</span></span></span></div></div></span></center>gunsirithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12044286050347672532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6058550784742727795.post-26914916776211911472010-01-07T02:33:00.000-08:002010-01-07T02:40:27.560-08:00Dusun Phrase StructurePhrase structure is the division of sentence into parts, or constituents, and the division of these constituents into subparts. For instance, the sentence “The boy went to the forest”, as represented in the table below, is made of two main constituents, “The boy” and “went to the forest”. The second constituent is in turn, divided into two parts, went and to the forest, which is divided even further, into to and the forest.<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0Wx4CqyjwI/AAAAAAAAA3Q/tbIU6qxZAtU/s1600-h/jungle.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0Wx4CqyjwI/AAAAAAAAA3Q/tbIU6qxZAtU/s320/jungle.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"> The Borneo jungle<br />
</div><ul><li>The Dusun phrase structure follow a different pattern since the normal English S – V – O structure is non-existent in the Dusun construction. </li>
</ul><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0Wxxdjj-dI/AAAAAAAAA2o/57Seo8h6Wmc/s1600-h/table_01.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0Wxxdjj-dI/AAAAAAAAA2o/57Seo8h6Wmc/s400/table_01.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0WxycLlDlI/AAAAAAAAA2w/DxSP8zksE-Y/s1600-h/table_02.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0WxycLlDlI/AAAAAAAAA2w/DxSP8zksE-Y/s640/table_02.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0Wx1ThIKaI/AAAAAAAAA3A/UrcVBzqTFJ8/s1600-h/table_04.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><br />
</div><ul><li>A typical Dusun sentence follows the V – S – O structure. </li>
</ul><ul><li>* Note that hilo’d is a contracted form of hilo id. “Id” is a grammatical particle which functions to denote position such as; </li>
</ul><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0WxpA9nEqI/AAAAAAAAA2I/4nz1Jv5D6e0/s1600-h/iban_01.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0WxpA9nEqI/AAAAAAAAA2I/4nz1Jv5D6e0/s320/iban_01.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">An Iban man<br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0WxrYeb45I/AAAAAAAAA2Q/feNCNw3Gm7Q/s1600-h/iban_02.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0WxrYeb45I/AAAAAAAAA2Q/feNCNw3Gm7Q/s320/iban_02.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">An Iban woman and her child<br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0Wxucs10GI/AAAAAAAAA2Y/vIJ1a0bCl_I/s1600-h/iban_03.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0Wxucs10GI/AAAAAAAAA2Y/vIJ1a0bCl_I/s320/iban_03.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">Penan men<br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0WzM93akNI/AAAAAAAAA3Y/rYxH7jDRl-k/s1600-h/dusun_house.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><br />
</div>1. Honggo ih Kudingking? (Where is Kudingking?)<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0WzM93akNI/AAAAAAAAA3Y/rYxH7jDRl-k/s1600-h/dusun_house.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0WzM93akNI/AAAAAAAAA3Y/rYxH7jDRl-k/s320/dusun_house.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0Wx4CqyjwI/AAAAAAAAA3Q/tbIU6qxZAtU/s1600-h/jungle.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"> </a><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;">A typical Dusun house <br />
</div><ul><li>Hilo’d lamin – (there) in the house or</li>
<li>Id lamin – in the house.</li>
<li>Id suang – inside</li>
<li>Id labus – outside</li>
<li>Id siriba – downstairs</li>
<li>Id sawat – upstairs</li>
<li>Id dumoh – in the rice field.</li>
</ul><b>Phrasal Category – Adjective Phrase</b><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0WxwBZbQyI/AAAAAAAAA2g/Gn51U5BYao8/s1600-h/table.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0WxwBZbQyI/AAAAAAAAA2g/Gn51U5BYao8/s400/table.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0Wxz08kT_I/AAAAAAAAA24/eKhTD5KGaKQ/s1600/table_03.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0Wxz08kT_I/AAAAAAAAA24/eKhTD5KGaKQ/s400/table_03.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><br />
<b>Dusun Adjective Phrase: Verb + Subject + Object </b><br />
<br />
<b>Phrasal Category – Adverbial Phrase</b><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0Wx1ThIKaI/AAAAAAAAA3A/UrcVBzqTFJ8/s1600-h/table_04.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0Wx1ThIKaI/AAAAAAAAA3A/UrcVBzqTFJ8/s400/table_04.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><br />
<b>Dusun Adverbial Phrase: Adverbial + Subject + Verb</b><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0Wx25yxxLI/AAAAAAAAA3I/YvIVLfotakg/s1600-h/table_05.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/S0Wx25yxxLI/AAAAAAAAA3I/YvIVLfotakg/s400/table_05.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><br />
<b>Photos courtesy of:</b><br />
<ul><li><a href="http://www.borneo-sarawak.travel/">borneo-sarawak.travel</a></li>
<li><a href="http://ahbengsworld.blogspot.com/">ahbengsworld.blogspot.com</a></li>
<li><a href="http://destination360.com/">destination360.com</a></li>
<li><a href="http://wc-zope.emergence.com/">wc-zope.emergence.com</a></li>
<li><a href="http://beautifulkk.com/">beautifulkk.com</a><br />
</li>
</ul>gunsirithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12044286050347672532noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6058550784742727795.post-28573734771133226422009-12-27T20:44:00.000-08:002009-12-27T23:19:37.784-08:00Language Ambiguity<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/Szg0zKQg8OI/AAAAAAAAAoY/Kk6cF7mmK2g/s1600-h/CrazyMonkey.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><br />
</div>In today's post, I would like to take your attention to the principle of diversity of meaning in the Dusun language or specifically termed as language ambiguity within the language itself.<br />
<br />
According to Cecilia Quiroga-Clare, something is ambiguous when it can be understood in two or more possible senses or ways. If the ambiguity is in a single word it is called lexical ambiguity. In a sentence or clause, structural ambiguity. <br />
<br />
Examples of lexical ambiguity are everywhere. In fact, almost any word has more than one meaning. "Note" = "A musical tone" or "A short written record." "Lie" = "Statement that you know it is not true" or "present tense of lay: to be or put yourself in a flat position."<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: center;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"></span><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/Szg0zKQg8OI/AAAAAAAAAoY/Kk6cF7mmK2g/s1600-h/CrazyMonkey.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/Szg0zKQg8OI/AAAAAAAAAoY/Kk6cF7mmK2g/s320/CrazyMonkey.jpg" /></a></span><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"><i><b>Kara (monkey)</b></i><br />
</div><br />
<b>Dusun Lexical Ambiguity</b><br />
<br />
1. <b>Kara</b> (monkey)<br />
<ul><li><b>Mintundok po ih <i>kara</i> hilod tuntuh timadang.</b> (The monkey is jumping on top of the timadang tree) </li>
</ul><ul><li><b>Pointimpak ilo <i>kara</i> id tansar mingkid-kingkid do luong.</b> (The "monkey" is sitting on the fence munching maize). The noun <b>kara </b>here is to refer to an individual (usually a naughty boy).</li>
</ul><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: center;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"></span><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/Szg1JcFLilI/AAAAAAAAAoo/VGoTCHxp3x0/s1600-h/shy_boy.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: black;"></span><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/Szg1JcFLilI/AAAAAAAAAoo/VGoTCHxp3x0/s320/shy_boy.JPG" /></a></span><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"><i><b>Tanak oikum-ikum (A shy boy)</b></i><br />
</div><br />
2. <b>Nipon </b>(teeth)<br />
<br />
<ul><li><b>Kasadu, karatu om kotipu </b><b><i>nipon </i>dau</b>. (He slipped, fell and broke his teeth) </li>
</ul><ul><li><b>Notipu </b><b><i>nipon</i> diti ragus ku. </b>(The chisel of my plough is broken)</li>
</ul><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/Szg1RlZxf8I/AAAAAAAAAow/VXI0SeRDMTk/s1600-h/tansar_small_02.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/Szg1RlZxf8I/AAAAAAAAAow/VXI0SeRDMTk/s320/tansar_small_02.JPG" /></a></span><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"><i><b>Tansar (A traditional fence made of bamboo and rattan)</b></i><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div>Ambiguity tends to increase with frequency of usage. Some examples of structural ambiguity: "John enjoys painting his models nude." Who is nude? "Visiting relatives can be so boring." Who is doing the visiting? It is either John who is nude while painting or the models that he is painting are in the nude. In the second sentence, it could be that the writer is visiting relatives or he/she is being visited by relatives<br />
<br />
<b>Dusun Structural Ambiguity</b><br />
<ul><li><b>Yadaai di Korimput sawo dau moi pogiboboros dit komolohingan</b>. (Korimput left his wife to talk to the elders)</li>
<li>There could be two possible meanings of this sentence, either Korimput left his wife to talk to the elders (his wife is the agent of the talking) </li>
<li>or He left his wife and talked to the elders himself (Korimput is the agent) </li>
</ul>My next post would be on the discussion of the Syntactic and Paradigmatic Relations of the Dusun Language.<br />
<br />
(<a href="http://www.seasite.niu.edu/trans/articles/Language%20Ambiguity.htm">source</a>)gunsirithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12044286050347672532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6058550784742727795.post-34122651367859796322009-12-22T15:26:00.000-08:002009-12-24T20:18:14.214-08:00Adjective and Adverb Inflections<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Adjective Inflection</span><br />
</div><b><br />
</b><br />
Normally in English, only one and two syllables words are inflected in the comparative and superlatives modes.<br />
<br />
<b>One syllable words</b><br />
<ul><li>small - small<b>er</b></li>
<li>kill - kill<b>er</b></li>
<li>big - bigg<b>er</b></li>
</ul><div><b>Two syllable words</b><br />
</div><div><ul><li>heavy - heavi<b>er</b></li>
<li>busy - busi<b>er</b></li>
<li>clumsy - clumsi<b>er</b></li>
</ul><div>Adjectives with two or more syllables do not accept inflectional morpheme; for them, the entire words rather than morphological suffixes, are used to indicate the comparative and superlative.<br />
</div><div><ul><li><b>more</b> beautiful - <b>most </b>beautiful</li>
<li><b>more</b> reluctant - <b>most</b> reluctant</li>
</ul></div></div><div><b>Adverb Inflection</b><br />
</div><div>Comparative and superlative inflections do appear in adverbs. They too can be compared or made superlative by using <b>more</b> and <b>most</b>.<br />
</div><div><ul><li>He ran fast<b>er</b> than his dad.</li>
<li>He ran the fast<b>est</b> of the three.</li>
<li>She held the baby <b>more securely.</b></li>
<li>How are verbs used <b>most effectively</b> in a sentence?</li>
</ul><div><b>Dusun Adjective Inflection</b><br />
</div><div><span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Comparative and Superlative</span><br />
</div><div><br />
</div><div><b>Root:-</b><br />
</div><div><ul><li><b><i>okoro</i></b> (small)</li>
<li><b><i>agayo</i></b> (big)</li>
</ul><ul><li><i>it <b>poinkoro-koro / poingkoro-koro</b></i> - smaller </li>
<li><i>it </i><b><i>tokoro</i></b><i> kopio, <b>tokoro</b> </i><b><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">tomod</span>, <span style="font-weight: normal;">it</span> </i></b><i>totos </i><b><i>tokoro,<span style="font-weight: normal;"> it <b>poingkoro</b> kopio</span></i></b><i> </i>- smallest</li>
<li><i>it <b>poingayo-gayo</b></i> - bigger</li>
<li><i>it </i><b><i>tagayo</i></b><i> kopio / tomod,<span style="font-style: normal;"> </span></i><i><span style="font-style: normal;">or</span> it totos <b>tagayo</b></i></li>
</ul></div><div></div><div><div style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/SzFR2L4FFGI/AAAAAAAAAhw/kWbvrEbdbuE/s320/kakanan_tagayo.jpg" /><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i>Poingayo-gayo ti kakanan dau ko ih dogo</i></b><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;">(His jar is bigger than mine)<br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;">Photo courtesy of <a href="http://beritutuan.blogspot.com/">beritutuan.blogspot.com</a><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/SzFR9diLuwI/AAAAAAAAAh4/IEwvSFaez60/s320/pusas.jpg" /><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i>Poingumu-gumu gia diolo pusas</i></b><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;">(They have more <i><b>pusas</b></i> or food)<br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;">Photo courtesy of <a href="http://ijonghairie.blogspot.com/">ijonghairie.blogspot.com</a><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
</div>Note that there are an inflection and a reduplication in the comparative mode - (prefix <b><i>poin / poing </i></b>and reduplication of <b><i>koro</i></b>) however, no inflection or reduplication in the superlative mode. <b><i>K</i></b><b><i>opio, tomod </i></b>and <b><i>totos </i></b>are the superlative adjectives functioning similar to "most" in the English language.<br />
</div><div><br />
</div><div><b>Dusun Adverb Infelection</b><br />
</div><div><span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Comparative and Superlative</span><br />
</div></div><div><b><i><br />
</i></b><br />
</div><div><b>Root:-</b><br />
</div><div><ul><li><b><i>osiau</i></b> (fast)</li>
<li><b><i>ogirot</i></b> (secure)</li>
</ul></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><img src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/SzFSIiCZamI/AAAAAAAAAiI/PLYa-Xt8ib8/s320/sumandak.jpg" /><br />
</div><div style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></div><div style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Poinlumis-lumis tirak dilo sumandak id pointanga-tanga.</span><br />
</div></div><div style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i><span style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">(The girl in the centre smiles more sweetly)</span></i></b><br />
</div></div><div><ul><li><i>Manangkus isio <b>poinsiau-siau</b> ko tapa dau</i>.(He ran<b> faster</b> than his dad)</li>
<li><b><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">Manangkus isio </span>poinsiau</i></b><i><b> kopio</b> / <b>tomod</b> ko mantad ilo tolu.</i> (He ran the <b>fastest</b> of the three)</li>
<li><i><b>Poingirot-girot</b> pongingigit disio ilo tanak. </i>(She held the child <b>more securely.</b>)</li>
<li><i><b>Poingirot</b> <b>tomod</b> pongingigit disio ilo tanak.</i> (She held the child <b>most securely</b>.)</li>
</ul><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/SzFUihN13JI/AAAAAAAAAiQ/v4Pf_DigqHU/s1600-h/tumpung.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/SzFUihN13JI/AAAAAAAAAiQ/v4Pf_DigqHU/s320/tumpung.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><i>poinpoit-poit pondo ih tumpung ku ko ih disio</i></b><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">(My rice wine is better than his)<br />
</div><div><br />
</div><div>Note that both inflection and reduplication are used in the transformation of the roots <b><i>osiau</i></b> and <b><i>ogirot</i></b> into the comparative mode.Prefix <b><i>p</i></b> and infix <b><i>in</i></b> are commonly used with a reduplication on the root to indicate comparison. On the second root word - <b><i>ogirot</i></b>, the same rules apply to form the comparative - a prefix <b><i>p, </i></b>an infix <b><i>in <span style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">and a reduplication of the root.</span></i></b>.Thus, it is evident that the comparative mode of the Dusun adverbs follow a simple rule - affixes <b><i>p</i></b> and <b><i>in</i></b> and a reduplication of the root word such as <b><i>poinlumis-lumis</i></b> <i>pongingirak dau</i>, <i><b>poinkolit-kolit</b></i> <i>kowowoyoon dau </i>and so on<i>.</i><br />
</div><div><i><br />
</i><br />
Dusun adverbs as in its adjectives make use of the superlatives such as <i><b>kopio, tomod</b></i> or <i><b>totos</b></i> used similar to <b>most</b> in the English Language.<br />
<br />
<b>Note</b>: The adjective <b><i>pointalib</i></b> can also be used to denote comparative in both adjectives and adverbs.<br />
<br />
<b>Root:-</b><br />
<br />
<b><i>talib</i></b> (pass through) as in<i> <b>talib</b> oku po</i>. (May I <b>pass</b> through?)<br />
<ul><li><b><i>Pointalib-talib</i></b> o kokoroon dau ko yoku. (adjective) - He is smaller than me.</li>
<li><b><i>Pointalib-talib</i></b> pananangkus dau ko isio. (adverb) - He ran faster than me.</li>
</ul><div>But it cannot be used in the inflected form alone without the reduplication.<br />
</div><div><ul><li><b><i>Pointalib</i></b> oh pomusarahan disio. (He is over thinking - signifying a very proud person or snobbish)</li>
<li><b><i>Pointalib</i></b> oh pananangkus dau. (He is making up his style of running to get attention)</li>
</ul></div><br />
End of lesson.........<i>Ba kanou moi poginum tumpung. Umbayaan tokou momolositik it kakang di Kong, wonsoion tokou pusas.</i><br />
</div></div>gunsirithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12044286050347672532noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6058550784742727795.post-66462165175505585632009-12-19T20:25:00.000-08:002010-10-18T23:00:16.431-07:00Noun and Verb Inflection??<center><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/Sy37kmYqIPI/AAAAAAAAAgQ/GozGsaeIO04/s1600-h/main_dusun.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5417262532994408690" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/Sy37kmYqIPI/AAAAAAAAAgQ/GozGsaeIO04/s320/main_dusun.jpg" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 316px; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; width: 320px;" /></a> </center><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #551a8b;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: black;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0000ee;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: black;"><br />
</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #551a8b;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: black;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0000ee;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: black;"><div style="text-align: left;">Finally, the long awaited second post is here!</div></span></span></span></span></span></span></div><div><br />
</div><div><br />
</div><div>Something that I wanted to write today is probably out of the ordinary. While socialising with family and friends during a cool and beautiful afternoon, one of my niece who is in Form Three asked me if there is an equivalent of the Dusun Language structure corresponding to the plural form in English.</div><div><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"></div><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i>Socializing :) </i></b></div><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i><br />
</i></b></div><div>She was brought up in a Dusun family but her first language wasn't Dusun. Her parents talked to all their children in <i>Tambunan Malay - </i>a term I invented to refer to the kind of Malay language spoken by Dusuns in Tambunan. The accent of the Tambunan Malay is of course much akin to the Dusun one.<br />
<div><br />
</div><div>Here are some examples:</div><div><ul><li><b>Dusun</b>: Moi oku <b>h</b><i><b>iiii</b></i><b>lo</b>. [I am going there/to that place] (an extended stressing of the <i><b>"hi"</b></i> syllable, particularly the vowel <i><b>"i"</b></i> is to show the longer distance to the place he is traveling, a shorter stress denotes a short distance)</li>
</ul><ul><li><b>Dusun Malay</b>: Saya mau pigi <b>s</b><i><b>aaa</b></i><b>na</b>. (the stressing is almost identical)</li>
</ul><ul><li><b>Dusun</b>: Moi oku <b>h<i>i</i>lo</b>. (No extended stress indicating a short distance.)</li>
</ul><ul><li><b>Dusun Malay</b>: Saya mau pigi <i><b>sa</b></i><b>na</b>.</li>
</ul><div><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/Sy3jVIOZ8NI/AAAAAAAAAfQ/CXS6XJlNiOo/s320/nieces.jpg" /></div><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i>Nieces</i></b></div><div><br />
</div><div>Now, coming back to the question of noun inflection in Dusun, I responded to her that there is no similar or equivalent noun inflections in the Dusun language, or does it?</div><div><br />
</div><div><b>English noun inflections</b>:<br />
<ul><li>Plural forms are usually indicated by adding "s" or "es" to the base/stem - map<b>s<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">, </span></b>match<b>es, </b>pad<b>s,</b> boy<b>s, </b>glass<b>es.</b></li>
<li>Noun possessive morphemes also have the same addition to the stem - the boss'<b>s </b>mistress, the table'<b>s</b> end.</li>
</ul><div>Now, let me examine the Dusun noun inflections, but first what is the definition<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>of the term<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><b>inflections</b>? Basically, they are inflectional morphemes which signal grammatical information such as number (plural), tense, possession and so forth. They are thus often called bound grammatical morphemes and exhibit no change of meaning after inflection.</div><div><br />
</div><div>Examples: </div><div><ul><li> walk vs. walk<b>s </b></li>
<li> toy vs. toy<b>s </b></li>
</ul></div><div><br />
</div><div>They never change the syntactic category of the words or morpheme which they are attached.</div><div><br />
</div><div>Examples: </div><div><ul><li>walk vs. walk<b>ed</b> or walk<b>s</b> (V--> V) </li>
<li> boy vs. boy<b>s</b> (N --> N) </li>
<li>eat vs. eat<b>ing</b> (progressive) (V-->V) </li>
</ul></div><div><br />
</div><div><b>Plural Form</b></div><div><br />
</div><div>Example:<br />
<ul><li>Kitut and Gimbuar took the <b>girl</b><i><b>s</b></i> home.</li>
<li>Nowit di Kitut om ih Gimbuar minuli ih <i><b>ko</b></i><b>sumandak</b><i><b>an</b></i> / <b>t</b><i><b>ong</b></i><b>ondu</b> / <b>t</b><i><b>ang</b></i><b>anak</b>. (Root: <b>sumandak</b>, circumfix - <b><i>ko</i></b> and <b><i>an - <span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: normal;">girls, no change in meaning so this is an inflectional morpheme</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: normal;">)</span></span></i></b></li>
<li>The <b>children</b> were in the hut.</li>
<li>Hilo(d) suang sulap it <b>ta<i>nga</i>nak</b>. (root:<b> tanak</b>, infix - <b><i>nga</i></b> - children,no change in meaning so this is an inflectional morpheme)</li>
</ul><div>The Dusun language does have the equivalent plurals but they are formed through affixation of bound morphemes - suffix, infix, prefix and perhaps circumfix. It will a bit awkward to add "s" or "es" to the base of Dusun words such as sumandak<b>s </b>(girls) and kusai<b>s </b>(boys). LOL!</div><div><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/Sy3jJf3c_MI/AAAAAAAAAfI/iJxYJizCuEA/s320/neice_01.jpg" /></div><div style="text-align: center;"><b><i>Another niece</i></b></div><div><br />
</div><div>Root: <b>tanak</b> (child)</div><div><ul><li><b>t</b><i><b>ang</b></i><b>anak</b> - children (Inflectional morpheme - noun plural, no change in meaning)</li>
<li><i><b>sang</b></i><b>anak</b> - the mother or father (Derivational morpheme - noun singular, changed in meaning)</li>
<li><b><i>ko</i>tanak-tanak</b> - being childish (Derivational, partial reduplication - adjective, changed in meaning)</li>
</ul><div>Root: <b>tondu</b> (girl/woman)</div><div><ul><li><b><i>k</i>ondu<i>an</i></b> - women (Inflectional - noun plural, no changed in meaning)</li>
<li><b>t</b><i><b>ong</b></i><b>ondu</b> - women (Inflectional - noun plural, no changed in meaning)</li>
<li><i><b>ko</b></i><b>tondu-tondu</b> - being feminish (especially to a male) - (Derivational, partial reduplication - adjective, changed in meaning)</li>
<li><b><i>min</i>tondu-tondu</b> - (purposely) acting like a girl - Derivational, partial reduplication - adverb, changed in meaning as in "<b><i>M</i></b><b><i>in</i>tondu-tondu</b> ih Gamanuk mamanau".</li>
</ul></div></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Possessive Morpheme</span></div></div></div></div><div><ul><li>It's <b>her<i>s</i></b>.</li>
<li><b><i>D</i>isio</b> lo. (disio = hers or his, Dusun has no genitives)</li>
<li>The base form of <b><i>d</i>isio</b> is <i><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: normal;">isio</span> </b></i>or<i> <b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: normal;">dau</span></b>.</i></li>
<li>An inflected <i><b>d</b></i><b>isio </b>but not in<b> dau<i> </i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">as in</span><i> </i>dau bo lo.</b></li>
<li>This is my dad'<b>s</b> car.</li>
<li>Korita <b>tapa</b> ku ti. (<b>tapa</b> - dad, no inflection)</li>
</ul><div><br />
</div><div><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/Sy36XPYMbbI/AAAAAAAAAgI/-QjiRzUd3uA/s320/group_damai.jpg" /></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">family members</span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div><b>Verb Inflection</b></div><div><b><br />
</b></div><div>Normally in English, verb inflections occur on the present tense morphemes when the subjects are in the third person singular. Similar inflections also occur on the past tense and the past participle morphemes of both regular and irregular verbs.</div><div><br />
</div><div>Root: <b>poibok</b> - drive</div><div><ul><li>Gutuk drive<b>s</b> a car.</li>
<li><b><i>Po</i>poibok</b> isio korita. (Inflection, prefix "<b><i>po</i></b>", drive - no change in meaning))</li>
<li>Gutuk <b>drove</b> a car yesterday.</li>
<li><b><i>Pino</i>poibok</b> ih Gutuk korita konihab/koniab. (Inflection, prefix "<b><i>pino</i></b>", drove - no change in meaning)</li>
<li>Gutuk has <b>driven</b> the car. </li>
<li><b><i>Noko</i>poibok</b> no ih Gutuk dilo korita. (Inflection, prefix "<b><i>noko</i></b>"<b><i>, </i></b>- driven, no change in meaning)</li>
</ul><div>Root: <b>takad</b> - climb (the hill, mountain)</div><ul><li>She <b>Climbs</b> the mountain everyday.</li>
<li><b>Takad</b> isio lo nuluhon tikid tadau<b>. </b>(No inflection)</li>
<li>She <b>climbed</b> the mountain last Sunday.</li>
<li><b>T<i>inum</i>akad</b> isio lo nuluhon dit Hari Minggu. (Inflection, infix "<b><i>inum</i></b>", - climbed, no change in meaning)</li>
<li>She <b>has climbed</b> the mountain.</li>
<li><b><i>Naka</i>takad </b>no isio lo nuluhon. (Inflection, prefix "<b><i>naka</i></b>", - has climbed, no change in meaning)</li>
</ul><div>Alright, clearly from the examples above, Dusun verb inflections do occur within the past tense and past participle structures, however they can never be inflected in the present tense.</div><div><br />
</div><div>Our next discussion will be on the inflections of adverbs and adjectives. Feeling bored anybody? :)</div><div><br />
</div></div></div><div><br />
</div></div></div>gunsirithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12044286050347672532noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6058550784742727795.post-53365199131265400612009-12-14T04:03:00.000-08:002009-12-15T00:23:23.240-08:00Dusun Derivational Morphemes<div style="text-align: center;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#0000EE;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="text-decoration: underline;"><br /></span></span></div><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/SyY_yES-tOI/AAAAAAAAAZU/5ZN5PRYI0Kc/s1600-h/front_01.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 316px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/SyY_yES-tOI/AAAAAAAAAZU/5ZN5PRYI0Kc/s320/front_01.jpg" border="0" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5415085731338958050" /></a>Let's start with the most basics of the Dusun Language word structure - the morphemes. We will first attempt to look into the English Derivational morphemes and later try to compare that to the equivalent Dusun structure.<br /><b><br /></b><div><b>English Derivational Morphemes</b><div><br /></div><div><ul><li>Derivational morphemes derive a new word by being attached to root morphemes or stems. They can be both suffixes and prefixes in English. </li></ul><ul><li>Examples: beautiful (beauty), exactly (exact), unhappy (happy), impossible (possible), recover (cover).</li></ul><ul><li><b>Change of Meaning </b> </li><li>Examples: </li></ul><ul><li>un+ tie (the opposite meaning of ‘tie’) </li><li>walk+ er ( deriving a new word with the meaning of a person who walks). </li></ul><ul><li><b>Change of the syntactic category</b> (optionally) </li><li><i>i) Change of category</i></li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><i><img src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/SyZAoOOGCFI/AAAAAAAAAZ0/UJ6I8ILK1-c/s320/house.jpg" /></i></div><div style="text-align: center;"><i>Early Dusun Settlement</i></div><ul><li><b><i>Noun to Adjective</i></b> </li><li>boy (noun) + ish ----> boyish (adj.) </li></ul><ul><li>Victoria (noun) + an ----> Victorian (adj.) </li><li>Affection (noun) + ate ---->affectionate (adj.)</li></ul><ul><li><b><i>Verb to Noun </i></b> </li><li>walk (Verb) + er ----> walker (noun) </li><li>predict (Verb) + ion ----> prediction (noun)</li></ul><ul><li><b><i>Adjective to Adverb </i></b> </li><li>exact (adj) + ly ----> exactly (adv) </li><li>quiet (adj) + ly ----> quietly (adv.)</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/SyZAdZ9agJI/AAAAAAAAAZs/quQgL2vWWrY/s320/girl.jpg" /></div><div style="text-align: center;"><i>A beautiful Dusun maiden</i></div><ul><li><b><i>Noun to Verb</i></b> </li><li>moral (noun) + ize ----> moralize (verb)</li></ul><ul><li><b><i>Adjective to Noun </i></b> </li><li>specific (Adj.) + ity ---->specificity (noun) </li></ul><ul><li><b><i> </i></b><b><i>ii) No change of category</i></b></li></ul><ul><li>friend+ship (Noun --> Noun) </li><li>pink+ish (Adjective --> Adjective) </li><li>re+print (Verb --> Verb) </li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/SyZAWD7jWqI/AAAAAAAAAZk/enk1QdLvexk/s320/wild_boar.jpg" /></div><div style="text-align: center;"><i>Dusun men</i></div><div style="text-align: center;"><i><br /></i></div><div><b>Dusun Derivational Morpheme</b><br /><ul><li><b>Change of Meaning </b> </li><li>Examples: </li></ul><ul><li><i>gam </i>+ <i>panau</i> </li><li>(Prefix<img src="http://www.blogger.com/img/blank.gif" alt="Italic" border="0" class="gl_italic" /> "<i>gam</i>" + root "<i>panau</i>" - walk)</li><li><i>Gampanau</i> - (Adj) A person who likes to wander about a lot.</li><li><i>in</i> + <i>koilo</i></li><li>(Prefix<i> in + </i>root <i>koilo - </i>know)</li><li><i>inkoilo </i>(Adj) - I don't know, the opposite of <i>koilo</i>.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tKFAgiLbLEg/SyZADJ02x2I/AAAAAAAAAZc/esX_9QfvlzQ/s320/austro_lists.jpg" /></div><div style="text-align: center;"><i>Autronesian phonology</i></div><div><br /></div><ul><li><b>Change of the syntactic category</b></li><li><i>i) Change of category</i></li></ul><ul><li><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; ">Noun to Adjective</span></li><li><b><i></i></b>Stem: <i>kusai </i>(boy) - Noun</li><li><i>kusai<b>on </b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: normal;">(</span></i>a girl who has a lot of boyfriends) - Adjective</li><li>Suffix - <i>on</i></li></ul><ul><li><b><i>Verb to Noun </i></b> </li><li>Stem<i>: tolop</i> (dive) - Verb</li><li><b><i>t</i></b><i>in</i><b><i>olop</i></b><i>on </i>(the place where a person dives) - Noun</li><li>Infix - <i>in </i>and Suffix - <i>on</i></li></ul><ul><li><b><i>Adjective to Adverb </i></b> </li><li>Stem: <i>otopot</i> (true) - Adjective</li><li><b><i>t<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">otopot</span> <span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: normal;">(truthfully) - Adverb as in </span>minimboros isio dit <b>totopot</b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: normal;"> ( He said it truthfully)</span></span></i></b></li><li>Prefix -<i> t</i></li></ul><ul><li><b><i>Noun to Verb</i></b> </li><li>Stem:<i> walai</i> (house) - Noun</li><li><i>walai<b>an</b></i> (build a house to a person) - Verb as in <i><b>walaian</b> gia isio hit</i>i. (Build a house for him here)</li><li>Suffix - <i>an</i></li></ul><ul><li><b><i>Adjective to Noun </i></b> </li><li>Stem: <i>gayo</i><i> </i>(big) - Adjective</li><li><i>kino<b>gayo</b>on </i>( a place where a person grew up) - Noun as in <i>hiti no <b>kinogayaon</b> ku</i>.</li><li>Circumfix: <i>kino</i> - <i>on</i></li></ul><ul><li> <span class="Apple-style-span"><b>ii) No change of category</b></span></li></ul><ul><li>Stem: <i>tambalut </i>(friend) - Noun</li><li><i>piom<b>bolut</b>an</i> (friendship) - Noun as in <i>gompio no ti <b>piombolutan</b> to.</i></li><li>Circumfix: <i>piom - an </i>(note the spelling change of the stem) </li></ul><ul><li>It is evident that the Dusun Language has a rich Derivational morphemes surpassing the English Language in term of infixes. Dusun as was discussed earlier had a variety of infixes - prefix, infix, circumfix and suffix as in the following:</li></ul><ul><li>Stem:panau</li><li><b>p</b>in<b>anau </b>(Infix <i>in</i>) - journey (Noun)</li><li>gam<b>panau </b>(Prefix <i>gam</i>) - A person who loves to wander about (Noun)</li><li><b>pana</b>hon (Suffix <i>hon</i>) - journey (Noun)</li><li>sam<b>panau-panau </b>(Prefix <i>sam</i> and reduplication of stem <i>panau</i>) - walking (verb -ing form)</li><li>mam<b>anau </b>(Prefix <i>mam</i>) - walk (Verb)</li><li><b>pa</b>ma<b>nau</b>on / pamanahon (Infix <i>ma</i> and Suffix <i>on</i>) - verb (let him walk / go), noun - as in <i>osodu po pamanauon dagai ti</i>. (Our journey is far ahead)</li><li>pim<b>panau </b>(Prefix <i>pim</i>) - verb (walk around) as in <i>pimpanau pogi. </i>(You may walk anywhere you like)</li></ul><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: rgb(34, 34, 34); font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; ">RTAEM8DW3HQ9</span></div></div></div>gunsirithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12044286050347672532noreply@blogger.com0